Archive for the ‘GCP’ Category

For more than a decade, organizations are using machine learning for various use cases such as predictions, assistance in the decision-making process, and more.

Due to the demand for high computational resources and in many cases expensive hardware requirements, the public cloud became one of the better ways for running machine learning or deep learning processes.

Terminology

Before we dive into the topic of this post, let us begin with some terminology:

• Artificial Intelligence – “The ability of a computer program or a machine to think and learn”, Wikipedia
• Machine Learning – “The task of making computers more intelligent without explicitly teaching them how to behave”, Bill Brock, VP of Engineering at Very
• Deep Learning – “A branch of machine learning that uses neural networks with many layers. A deep neural network analyzes data with learned representations like the way a person would look at a problem”, Bill Brock, VP of Engineering at Very

Source: https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/artificial-intelligence-tutorial/ai-vs-machine-learning-vs-deep-learning

Public use cases of deep learning

• Disney makes its archive accessible using deep learning built on AWS
• NBA accelerates modern app time to market to ramp up fans’ excitement
• Satair: Enhancing customer service with Lilly, a smart online assistant built on Google Cloud

In this blog post, I will focus on deep learning and hardware available in the cloud for achieving deep learning.

Deep Learning workflow

The deep learning process is made of the following steps:

1. Prepare – Store data in a repository (such as object storage or a database)
2. Build – Choose a machine learning framework (such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, Apache MXNet, etc.)
3. Train – Choose hardware (compute, network, storage) to train the model you have built (“learn” and optimize model from data)
4. Inference – Using the trained model (on large scale) to make a prediction

Deep Learning processors comparison (Training phase)

Below is a comparison table for the various processors available in the public cloud, dedicated to the deep learning training phase:

Additional References

• Amazon EC2 – Accelerated Computing
• AWS EC2 Instances Powered by Gaudi Accelerators for Training Deep Learning Models
• AWS Trainium
• Azure – GPU-optimized virtual machine sizes
• Google Cloud – GPU platforms
• Google Cloud – Introduction to Cloud TPU
• Oracle Cloud Infrastructure – Compute Shapes – GPU Shapes
• Alibaba Cloud GPU-accelerated compute-optimized and vGPU-accelerated instance families
• NVIDIA T4 Tensor Core GPU
• NVIDIA A10 Tensor Core GPU
• NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU

Deep Learning processors comparison (Inference phase)

Below is a comparison table for the various processors available in the public cloud, dedicated to the deep learning inference phase:

Additional References

• Amazon EC2 – Accelerated Computing
• AWS Inferentia
• Google Cloud – The G2 machine series

Summary

In this blog post, I have shared information about the various alternatives for using hardware available in the public cloud to run deep learning processes.

I recommend you to keep reading and expand your knowledge on both machine learning and deep learning, what services are available in the cloud and what are the use cases to achieve outcomes from deep learning.

Additional References

• AWS Machine Learning Infrastructure
• AWS – Select the right ML instance for your training and inference jobs
• AWS – Accelerate deep learning and innovate faster with AWS Trainium
• Azure AI Infrastructure
• Google Cloud Platform – AI Infrastructure
• Oracle Cloud – Machine Learning Services
• Alibaba Cloud – Machine Learning Platform for AI

Managing cloud environments on large scale has many challenges.

One of the challenges many organizations are facing is managing network inbound/outbound network connectivity to their cloud environments.

Due to the nature of the public cloud, all resources are potentially public, unless we configured them otherwise.

What are the challenges in the network security domain?

There are many challenges related to network security, here are the most common ones:

• Unauthorized inbound network access – Publicly facing resources (such as virtual machines, object storage, databases, etc.) allowing anyone on the Internet access to the resources
• Unrestricted outbound network access – Internal resources (such as virtual machines, databases, serverless, etc.) can initiate outbound traffic to resources on the public Internet
• Managing network access rules at large scale – Ability to control thousands of firewall rules created over time, while managing multiple accounts for a specific cloud provider (or even multiple different cloud providers)
• Understanding the network attack surface – Ability to get a clear view of what inbound or outbound traffic is allowed or denied in a large cloud environment with multiple accounts
• Enabling the business, while keeping the infrastructure secure – Ability to respond to multiple business requests, using small network/information security / IT team

With all the above challenges, how do we keep our cloud network infrastructure secure and at a large scale?

Set Guardrails

One of the common ways to configure guardrails is to use organizational policies using Policy-as-Code.

All major cloud providers support this capability.

It allows us to configure rules for the maximum allowed permissions over our cloud environments according to our company security policy while allowing developers / DevOps to continue provisioning resources.

AWS Service control policies (SCPs)

Below are sample service control policies that can be configured at the AWS organizational level (with inheritance to the underlining OU’s), for restricting inbound access:

• Detect whether any Amazon EC2 instance has an associated public IPv4 address
• Detect whether Amazon S3 settings to block public access are set as true for the account
• Detects whether an Amazon EKS endpoint is blocked from public access
• Detect whether the AWS Lambda function policy attached to the Lambda resource blocks public access
• Detect whether any Amazon VPC subnets are assigned a public IP address

Azure Policy

Below are sample Azure policies that can be configured at the Azure subscription level, for restricting inbound access:

• Container Apps should disable external network access
• Network interfaces should not have public IPs
• All network ports should be restricted on network security groups associated to your virtual machine
• Function apps should disable public network access
• Azure SQL Managed Instances should disable public network access
• Public network access on Azure SQL Database should be disabled
• Public network access should be disabled for MySQL servers
• Public network access should be disabled for PostgreSQL servers
• Storage accounts should disable public network access

Google Organization Policies

Below are sample Google organization policies that can be configured at the GCP Project level, for restricting inbound access:

• Restrict public IP access on Cloud SQL instances
• Enforce Public Access Prevention
• Disable VM serial port access
• Define allowed external IPs for VM instances

Controlling inbound/outbound network traffic at scale

At large scale, we cannot rely on the built-in layer 4 access control mechanisms (such as AWS Security groups, Azure Network Security Groups, or GCP Firewall Rules) to define inbound or outbound traffic from/to our cloud environments.

For large scale, we should consider alternatives that will allow us to configure network restrictions, while allowing us central visibility over our entire cloud environment.

Another aspect we should keep in mind is that the default layer 4 access control mechanisms do provide us advanced protection against today’s threats, such as the ability to perform TLS inspection, control web traffic using URL filtering, etc.

Cloud-native firewall services:

Note: If you prefer to use 3^rd party NGFW, you can deploy it using AWS Gateway Load Balancer or Azure Gateway Load Balancer.

Additional references

• What is AWS Network Firewall?
• What is Azure Firewall?
• Google Cloud Firewall Overview

Understanding the network attack surface

One of the common issues with large cloud environments is to have a visibility of which inbound or outbound ports are opened to the Internet, exposing the cloud environment.

Common services to allow network visibility:

• AWS Network Access Analyzer
• Azure Monitor Network Insights
• Google Network Intelligence Center

Another alternative for getting insights into attack surface or network misconfiguration is to deploy 3^rd party Cloud Security Posture Management (CSPM) solution, which will allow you central visibility into publicly accessible virtual machines, databases, object storage, and more, over multiple cloud providers’ environments.

Summary

In this blog post, I have presented common challenges in managing network security aspects in cloud environments.

Using a combination of organizational policies, strict inbound/outbound traffic control, and good visibility over large or complex cloud environments, it is possible to enable the business to move forward, while mitigating security risks.

As the cloud threat landscape evolves, so do security teams need to research for suitable solutions to enable the business, while keeping the cloud environments secure.

In 2020 I have published a blog post called Running MySQL Managed Database in the Cloud, comparing different alternatives for running MySQL database in the cloud.

In this blog post, I will take one step further, comparing PostgreSQL database alternatives deployed on a distributed system.

Background

PostgreSQL is an open-source relational database, used by many companies, and is very common among cloud applications, where companies prefer an open-source solution, supported by a strong community, as an alternative to commercial database engines.

The simplest way to run the PostgreSQL engine in the cloud is to choose one of the managed database services, such as Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL or Google Cloud SQL for PostgreSQL, and allow you to receive a fully managed database.

In this scenario, you as the customer, receive a fully managed PostgreSQL database cluster, that spans across multiple availability zones, and the cloud provider is responsible for maintaining the underlining operating system, including patching, hardening, monitoring, and backup (up to the service limits).

As a customer, you receive an endpoint (i.e., DNS name and port), configure access controls (such as AWS Security groups or GCP VCP Firewall rules), and set authentication and authorization for what identities have access to the managed database.

This solution is suitable for most common use cases if your applications (and perhaps customers) are in a specific region.

What happens in a scenario where you would like to design a truly highly available architecture span across multiple regions (in the rare case of an outage in a specific region) and serve customers across the globe, deploying your application close to your customers?

The solution for allowing high availability and multi-region deployment is to deploy the PostgreSQL engine in a managed distributed database.

PostgreSQL Distributed Database Alternatives

The distributed system allows you to run a database across multiple regions while keeping the data synchronized.

In a distributed database, the compute layer (i.e., virtual machines) running the database engine is deployed on separate nodes from the storage and logging layer, allowing you to gain the benefits of the cloud provider’s backend infrastructure low-latency replication capabilities.

In each system, there is a primary cluster (which oversees read/write actions) and one or more secondary clusters (read-only replicas).

Architecture diagram:

Let us examine some of the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Additional References

• Working with Amazon Aurora PostgreSQL
• Google AlloyDB for PostgreSQL

Summary

In this blog post, I have compared two alternatives for running PostgreSQL-compatible database in a distributed architecture.

If you are looking for a relational database solution with high durability that will auto-scale according to application load, and with the capability to replicate data across multiple regions, you should consider one of the alternatives I have mentioned in this blog post.

As always, I recommend you to continue reading and expanding your knowledge on the topic and evaluate during the architecture design phase, if your workloads can benefit from a distributed database system.

Additional References

• Amazon Aurora: Design considerations for high throughput cloud-native relational databases
• AlloyDB for PostgreSQL under the hood: Intelligent, database-aware storage

In 2020, I have published the blog post “Confidential Computing and the Public Cloud“.

Now, let us return to the subject of confidential computing and see what has changed among cloud providers.

Before we begin our conversation, let us define what is “Confidential Computing”, according to The Confidential Computing Consortium:

“Confidential Computing is the protection of data in use by performing the computation in a hardware-based, attested Trusted Execution Environment“

Source: https://confidentialcomputing.io/about

Introduction

When we store data in the cloud, there are various use cases where we would like to protect data from unauthorized access (from an external attacker to an internal employee and up to a cloud provider engineer who potentially might have access to customers’ data).

To name a few examples of data who would like to protect – financial data (such as credit card information), healthcare data (PHI – Personal Health Information), private data about a persona (PII – Personally Identifiable Information), government data, military data, and more.

When we would like to protect data in the cloud, we usually encrypt it in transit (with protocols such as TLS) and at rest (with algorithms such as AES).

At some point in time, either an end-user or a service needs access to the encryption keys and the data is decrypted in the memory of the running machine.

Confidential computing comes to solve the problem, by encrypting data while in use, and this is done using a hardware-based Trusted Execution Environment (TEE), also known as the hardware root of trust.

The idea behind it is to decrease the reliance on proprietary software and provide security at the hardware level.

To validate that data is protected and has not been tampered with, confidential computing performs a cryptographic process called attestation, which allows the customer to audit and make sure data was not tempered by any unauthorized party.

There are two approaches to achieving confidential computing using hardware-based TEEs:

• Application SDKs – The developer is responsible for data partitioning and encryption. Might be influenced by programming language and specific hardware TEEs.
• Runtime deployment systems – Allows the development of cross-TEE portable applications.

As of March 2023, the following are the commonly supported hardware alternatives to achieve confidential computing or encryption in use:

• Intel Software Guard Extensions (Intel SGX)
• AMD Secure Encrypted Virtualization (SEV), based on AMD EPYC processors

AWS took a different approach when they released the AWS Nitro Enclaves technology.

The AWS Nitro System is made from Nitro Cards (to provision and manage compute, memory, and storage), Nitro Security Chip (the link between the CPU and the place where customer workloads run), and the Nitro Hypervisor (receive virtual machine management commands and assign functions to the Nitro hardware interfaces).

Cloud Providers Comparison

All major cloud providers have their implementation and services that support confidential computing.

Below are the most used services supporting confidential computing:

Virtual Machine supported instance types

Additional References:

• Instances built on the AWS Nitro System
• Azure Confidential VMs
• Introducing high-performance Confidential Computing with N2D and C2D VMs
• Oracle Cloud Infrastructure Confidential Computing
• Alibaba Cloud – Build a confidential computing environment by using Enclave

Managed Relational Database supported instance types

Additional References:

• AWS DB instance classes
• AWS Aurora DB instance classes
• SQL Azure Always Encrypted

Managed Containers Services Comparison

Additional References:

• Using Enclaves with Amazon EKS
• Azure Confidential containers
• Encrypt workload data in use with Confidential Google Kubernetes Engine Nodes
• Alibaba Cloud Container Service for Kubernetes (ACK) clusters supports confidential computing

Managed Hadoop Services supported instance types

Additional References:

• Amazon EMR-supported instance types
• Google Dataproc Confidential Compute

Summary

In this blog post, we have learned what confidential computing means, how it works, and why would we as customers need confidential computing to keep the privacy of our data stored in the public cloud.

We have also compared major cloud providers offering confidential computing-supported services.

The field of confidential computing continues to evolve – both from cloud providers adding more services to support confidential computing and allowing customers to have confidence storing data in the cloud and from third-party security vendors, offering cross-cloud platforms solutions, allowing an easy way to secure data in the cloud.

I encourage everyone to read and expand their knowledge about confidential computing implementations.

Additional References:

• Confidential Computing Consortium
• The Security Design of the AWS Nitro System
• Azure Confidential Computing Overview
• Google Confidential Computing
• Protect data in use with OCI Confidential Computing
• Alibaba Cloud – Privacy, Security and Confidential Computing – What You Need to Know

We have been using load-balancing technology for many years.

What is the purpose of load-balancers and what are the alternatives offered as managed services by the public cloud providers?

Terminology

Below are some important concepts regarding cloud load-balancers:

• Private / Internal Load-Balancer – A load-balancer serving internal traffic (such as traffic from public websites to a back-end database)
• Public / External Load-Balancer – A load-balancer that exposes a public IP and serves external traffic (such as traffic from customers on the public Internet to an external website)
• Regional Load-Balancer – A load-balancer that is limited to a specific region of the cloud provider
• Global Load-Balancer – A load-balancer serving customers from multiple regions around the world using a single public IP
• TLS Termination / Offloading – A process where a load-balancer decrypt encrypted incoming traffic, for further analysis (such as traffic inspection) and either pass the traffic to the back-end nodes decrypted (offloading the encrypted traffic) or pass the traffic encrypted to the back-end nodes

What are the benefits of using load balancers?

Load-balancers offer our applications the following benefits:

• Increased scalability – combined with “auto-scale” we can benefit from the built-in elasticity of cloud services, allowing us to increase or decrease the amount of compute services (such as VMs, containers, and database instances) according to our application’s load
• Redundancy – load-balancers allow us to send traffic to multiple back-end servers (or containers), and in case of a failure in a specific back-end node, the load-balancer will send traffic to other healthy nodes, allowing our service to continue serving customers
• Reduce downtime – consider a scenario where we need to schedule maintenance work (such as software upgrades in a stateful architecture), using a load-balancer, we can remove a single back-end server (or container), drain the incoming traffic, and send new customers’ requests to other back-end nodes, without affecting the service
• Increase performance – assuming our service suffers from a peak in traffic, adding more back-end nodes will allow us a better performance to serve our customers
• Manage failures – one of the key features of a load-balancer is the ability to check the health status of the back-end nodes, and in case one of the nodes does not respond (or function as expected), the load-balancer will not send new traffic to the failed node

Layer 4 Load-Balancers

The most common load-balancers operate at layer 4 of the OSI model (the network/transport layer), and usually, we refer to them as network load-balancers.

The main benefit of a network load balancer is extreme network performance.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Additional reference

• What is a Network Load Balancer?

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/elasticloadbalancing/latest/network/introduction.html

• What is Azure Load Balancer?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/load-balancer/load-balancer-overview

• Google Cloud Load Balancing overview

https://cloud.google.com/load-balancing/docs/load-balancing-overview

Layer 7 Load-Balancers

When we need to load balance modern applications traffic, we use application load balancers, which operate at layer 7 of the OSI model (the application layer).

Layer 7 load-balancers have an application awareness, meaning you can configure routing rules to route traffic to two different versions of the same application (using the same DNS name), but with different URLs.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Additional reference

• What is an Application Load Balancer?

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/elasticloadbalancing/latest/application/introduction.html

• What is Azure Application Gateway?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/application-gateway/overview

Global Load-Balancers

Although only Google has a native global load balancer, both AWS and Azure have alternatives, which allow us to configure a multi-region architecture serving customers from multiple regions around the world.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Additional reference

• What is AWS Global Accelerator?

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/global-accelerator/latest/dg/what-is-global-accelerator.html

• What is Traffic Manager?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/traffic-manager/traffic-manager-overview

• What is Azure Front Door?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/frontdoor/front-door-overview

Summary

In this blog post, we have reviewed why we need cloud load balancers when designing scalable and highly available architectures.

We reviewed the different types of managed cloud load balancers and compared the hyper-scale public cloud providers and their various capabilities.

When designing a modern application, considering network aspects (such as internal, external, or even global availability requirements), will allow you better application performance, availability, and customer experience.

Additional references

• AWS Elastic Load Balancing features

https://aws.amazon.com/elasticloadbalancing/features

• Azure Load-balancing options

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/architecture/guide/technology-choices/load-balancing-overview

• Google Cloud Load balancer feature comparison

https://cloud.google.com/load-balancing/docs/features

Whether we serve internal customers or external customers over the public Internet, we all manage production workloads at some stage in the application lifecycle.

In this blog post, I will review various aspects and recommendations when managing production workloads in the public cloud (although, some of them may be relevant for on-premise as well).

Tip #1 – Think big, plan for large scale

Production workloads are meant to serve many customers simultaneously.

Don’t think about the first 1000 customers who will use your application, plan for millions of concurrent connections from day one.

Take advantage of the cloud elasticity when you plan your application deployment, and use auto-scaling capabilities to build a farm of virtual machines or containers, to be able to automatically scale in or scale out according to application load.

Using event-driven architecture will allow you a better way to handle bottlenecks on specific components of your application (such as high load on front web servers, API gateways, backend data store, etc.)

Tip #2 – Everything breaks, plan for high availability

No business can accept downtime of a production application.

Always plan for the high availability of all components in your architecture.

The cloud makes it easy to design highly-available architectures.

Cloud infrastructure is built from separate geographic regions, and each region has multiple availability zones (which usually means several distinct data centers).

When designing for high availability, deploy services across multiple availability zones, to mitigate the risk of a single AZ going down (together with your production application).

Use auto-scaling services such as AWS Auto Scaling, Azure Autoscale, or Google Autoscale groups.

Tip #3 – Automate everything

The days we used to manually deploy servers and later manually configure each server are over a long time ago.

Embrace the CI/CD process, and build steps to test and provision your workloads, from the infrastructure layer to the application and configuration layer.

Take advantage of Infrastructure-as-Code to deploy your workloads.

Whether you are using a single cloud vendor and putting efforts into learning specific IaC language (such as AWS CloudFormation, Azure Resource Manager, or Google Cloud Deployment Manager), or whether you prefer to learn and use cloud-agnostic IaC language such as Terraform, always think about automation.

Automation will allow you to deploy an entire workload in a matter of minutes, for DR purposes or for provisioning new versions of your application.

Tip #4 – Limit access to production environments

Traditional organizations are still making the mistake of allowing developers access to production, “to fix problems in production”.

As a best practice human access to production workloads must be prohibited.

For provisioning of new services or making changes to existing services in production, we should use CI/CD process, running by a service account, in a non-interactive mode, following the principle of least privilege.

For troubleshooting or emergency purpose, we should create a break-glass process, allowing a dedicated group of DevOps or Service Reliability Engineers (SREs) access to production environments.

All-access attempts must be audited and kept in an audit system (such as SIEM), with read permissions for the SOC team.

Always use secure methods to login to operating systems or containers (such as AWS Systems Manager Session Manager, Azure Bastion, or Google Identity-Aware Proxy)

Enforce the use of multi-factor authentication (MFA) for all human access to production environments.

Tip #5 – Secrets Management

Static credentials of any kind (secrets, passwords, certificates, API keys, SSH keys) are prone to be breached when used over time.

As a best practice, we must avoid storing static credentials or hard-code them in our code, scripts, or configuration files.

All static credentials must be generated, stored, retrieved, rotated, and revoked automatically using a secrets management service.

Access to the secrets management requires proper authentication and authorization process and is naturally audited and logs must be sent to a central logging system.

Use Secrets Management services such as AWS Secrets Manager, Azure Key Vault, or Google Secret Manager.

Tip #6 – Auto-remediation of vulnerabilities

Vulnerabilities can arise for various reasons – from misconfigurations to packages with well-known vulnerabilities to malware.

We need to take advantage of cloud services and configure automation to handle the following:

• Vulnerability management – Run vulnerability scanners on regular basis to automatically detect misconfigurations or deviations from configuration standards (services such as Amazon Inspector, Microsoft Defender, or Google Security Command Center).
• Patch management – Create automated processes to check for missing OS patches and use CI/CD processes to push security patches (services such as AWS Systems Manager Patch Manager, Azure Automation Update Management, or Google OS patch management).
• Software composition analysis (SCA) – Run SCA tools as part of the CI/CD process to automatically detect open-source libraries/packages with well-known vulnerabilities (services such as Amazon Inspector for ECR, Microsoft Defender for Containers, or Google Container Analysis).
• Malware – If your workload contains virtual machines, deploy anti-malware software at the operating system level, to detect and automatically block malware.
• Secure code analysis – Run SAST / DAST tools as part of the CI/CD process, to detect vulnerabilities in your code (if you cannot auto-remediate, at least break the build process).

Tip #7 – Monitoring and observability

Everything will eventually fail.

Log everything – from system health, performance logs, and application logs to user experience logs.

Monitor the entire service activity (from the operating system, network, application, and every part of your workload).

Use automated services to detect outages or service degradation and alert you in advance, before your customers complain.

Use services such as Amazon CloudWatch, Azure Monitor, or Google Cloud Logging.

Tip #8 – Minimize deviations between Dev, Test, and Production environments

Many organizations still believe in the false sense that lower environments (Dev, Test, QA, UAT) can be different from production, and “we will make all necessary changes before moving to production”.

If you build your environments differently, you will never be able to test changes or new versions of your applications/workloads in a satisfying manner.

Use the same hardware (from instance type, amount of memory, CPU, and storage type) when provisioning compute services.

Provision resources to multiple AZs, in the same way, as provision for production workloads.

Use the same Infrastructure-as-Code to provision all environments, with minor changes such as tagging indicating dev/test/prod, different CIDRs, and different endpoints (such as object storage, databases, API gateway, etc.)

Some managed services (such as API gateways, WAF, DDoS protection, and more), has different pricing tiers (from free, standard to premium), allowing you to consume different capabilities or features – conduct a cost-benefit analysis and consider the risk of having different pricing tiers for Dev/Test vs. Production environments.

Summary

Designing production workloads have many aspects to consider.

We must remember that production applications are our face to our customers, and as such, we would like to offer highly-available and secured production applications.

This blog post contains only part of the knowledge required to design, deploy, and operate production workloads.

I highly recommend taking the time to read vendor documentation, specifically the well-architected framework documents – they contain information gathered by architects, using experience gathered over years from many customers around the world.

Additional references

• AWS Well-Architected Framework

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/wellarchitected/latest/framework/welcome.html

• Microsoft Azure Well-Architected Framework

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/architecture/framework

• Google Cloud Architecture Framework

https://cloud.google.com/architecture/framework

When connecting machines over the public Internet (or over private networks), we use IPv4 addresses.

For many years we heard about IPv4 address exhaustion or the fact that sometime in the future we will not able to request new IPv4 addresses to connect over the public Internet.

We all heard that IPv6 address space will resolve our problem, but is it?

In this blog post, I will try to compare common use cases for using cloud services and see if they are ready for IPv6.

Before we begin, when working with IPv6, we need to clarify what “Dual Stack” means – A device with dual-stack implementation in the operating system has an IPv4 and IPv6 address, and can communicate with other nodes in the LAN or the Internet using either IPv4 or IPv6.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

Step 1 – Cloud Network Infrastructure

The first step in building our cloud environment begins with the network services.

The goal is to be able to create a network environment with subnets, an access control list, be able to create peering between cloud accounts (for the same cloud provider), and get ingress access to our cloud environment (either from the public Internet or from our on-premise data center).

Vendor documentation:

• AWS VPC that supports IPv6 addressing

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/vpc/latest/userguide/get-started-ipv6.html

• What is IPv6 for Azure Virtual Network?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/virtual-network/ip-services/ipv6-overview

• Google VPC networks

https://cloud.google.com/vpc/docs/vpc

Step 2 – Private Network Connectivity – Managed VPN Services

Now that we have a network environment in the cloud, how do we connect to it from our on-premise data center using Site-to-Site VPN?

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Hybrid connectivity design – Amazon-managed VPN

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/whitepapers/latest/ipv6-on-aws/hybrid-connectivity-design.html#amazon-managed-vpn

• Google Cloud VPN overview – IPv6 support

https://cloud.google.com/network-connectivity/docs/vpn/concepts/overview#ipv6_support

Step 3 – Private Network Connectivity – Dedicated Network Connections

Assuming we managed to create a VPN tunnel between our on-premise data center and the cloud environment, what happens if we wish to set up a dedicated network connection (and have low latency and promised bandwidth)?

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Hybrid connectivity design – AWS Direct Connect

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/whitepapers/latest/ipv6-on-aws/hybrid-connectivity-design.html#aws-direct-connect

• Add IPv6 support for private peering using the Azure portal

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/expressroute/expressroute-howto-add-ipv6-portal

• Create and manage ExpressRoute public peering

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/expressroute/about-public-peering

• Can I reach my instances using IPv6 over Cloud Interconnect?

https://cloud.google.com/network-connectivity/docs/interconnect/support/faq#ipv6

Step 4 – Private Network Connectivity – Resources on the subnet level

We have managed to provision the network environment in the cloud using IPv6.

What happens if we wish to connect to managed services using private network connectivity (inside the cloud provider’s backbone and not over the public Internet)?

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Expedite your IPv6 adoption with PrivateLink services and endpoints

https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/networking-and-content-delivery/expedite-your-ipv6-adoption-with-privatelink-services-and-endpoints

• Create a Private Link service by using the Azure portal

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/private-link/create-private-link-service-portal?tabs=dynamic-ip

Step 5 – Name Resolution – Managed DNS Service

In the previous step we configured network infrastructure, now, before provisioning resources, let us make sure we can access resources, meaning having a managed DNS service.

By name resolution, I mean both external customers over the public Internet and name resolution from our on-premise data centers.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Designing DNS for IPv6

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/whitepapers/latest/ipv6-on-aws/designing-dns-for-ipv6.html

• Azure DNS FAQ

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/dns/dns-faq

• General Google Cloud DNS overview

https://cloud.google.com/dns/docs/dns-overview

Step 6 – Resource Provisioning – Compute (Virtual Machines)

In the previous steps we have set up the network infrastructure and name resolution, and now it is time to provision resources.

The most common resource we can find in IaaS is compute or virtual machines.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Amazon EC2 IPv6 addresses

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AWSEC2/latest/UserGuide/using-instance-addressing.html#ipv6-addressing

• Create an Azure Virtual Machine with a dual-stack network using the Azure portal

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/virtual-network/ip-services/create-vm-dual-stack-ipv6-portal

• Configuring IPv6 for instances and instance templates

https://cloud.google.com/compute/docs/ip-addresses/configure-ipv6-address

Step 7 – Resource Provisioning – Compute (Managed Kubernetes)

Another common use case is to provision containers based on a managed Kubernetes service.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Running IPv6 EKS Clusters

https://aws.github.io/aws-eks-best-practices/networking/ipv6/

• Use dual-stack kubenet networking in Azure Kubernetes Service (AKS) (Preview)

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/aks/configure-kubenet-dual-stack?tabs=azure-cli%2Ckubectl

• GKE – IPv4/IPv6 dual-stack networking

https://cloud.google.com/kubernetes-engine/docs/concepts/alias-ips#dual_stack_network

Step 8 – Resource Provisioning – Compute (Serverless / Function as a Service)

If we have already managed to provision VMs and containers, what about provisioning serverless or Function as a Service?

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• AWS Lambda now supports Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) endpoints for inbound connections

https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2021/12/aws-lambda-ipv6-endpoints-inbound-connections

Step 9 – Resource Provisioning – Managed Load Balancers

If we are planning to expose services either to the public internet or allow connectivity from our on-premise, we will need to use a managed load-balancer service.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Application Load Balancer and Network Load Balancer end-to-end IPv6 support

https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2021/11/application-load-balancer-network-load-balancer-end-to-end-ipv6-support

• Overview of IPv6 for Azure Load Balancer

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/load-balancer/load-balancer-ipv6-overview

• GCP – IPv6 termination for External HTTP(S), SSL Proxy, and External TCP Proxy Load Balancing

https://cloud.google.com/load-balancing/docs/ipv6

Step 10 – Resource Provisioning – Managed Object Storage

The next step after provisioning compute services is to allow us to store data in an object storage service.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• Making requests to Amazon S3 over IPv6

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonS3/latest/userguide/ipv6-access.html

Step 11 – Resource Provisioning – Managed Database Services

Most of the application we provision requires a backend database to store and retrieve data.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• IPv6 addressing with Amazon RDS

https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/database/ipv6-addressing-with-amazon-rds

• Connectivity architecture for Azure SQL Managed Instance – Networking constraints

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/azure-sql/managed-instance/connectivity-architecture-overview?view=azuresql&tabs=current#networking-constraints

Step 12 – Protecting Network Access – Managed Firewall Services

If we are planning to expose services to the public Internet using IPv6 or allow access from on-premise, we need to consider a managed network firewall service.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• AWS Network Firewall announces IPv6 support

https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2023/01/aws-network-firewall-ipv6-support

Step 13 – Protecting Network Access – Managed DDoS Protection Services

On the topic of exposing services to the public Internet, we need to take into consideration protection against DDoS attacks.

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• AWS Shield FAQs

https://aws.amazon.com/shield/faqs

• About Azure DDoS Protection SKU Comparison

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/ddos-protection/ddos-protection-sku-comparison

• Google Cloud Armor – Security policy overview

https://cloud.google.com/armor/docs/security-policy-overview

Step 14 – Protecting Network Access – Managed Web Application Firewall

We know that protection against network-based attacks is possible using IPv6.

What about protection against application-level attacks?

Let us compare the cloud providers’ alternatives:

Vendor documentation:

• IPv6 Support Update – CloudFront, WAF, and S3 Transfer Acceleration

https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/aws/ipv6-support-update-cloudfront-waf-and-s3-transfer-acceleration

• What is Azure Front Door?

https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/frontdoor/front-door-overview

Summary

In this blog post we have compared various cloud services, intending to answer the question – Is the public cloud ready for IPv6?

As we have seen, many cloud services do support IPv6 today (mostly in dual-stack mode), and AWS does seem to be more mature than its competitors, however, at the time of writing this post, the public cloud is not ready to handle IPv6-only services.

The day we will be able to develop cloud-native applications while allowing end-to-end IPv6-only addresses, in all layers (from the network, compute, database, storage, event-driven / message queuing, etc.), is the day we know the public cloud is ready to support IPv6.

For the time being, dual stack (IPv4 and IPv6) is partially supported by many services in the cloud, but we cannot rely on end-to-end connectivity.

Additional References

• AWS services that support IPv6

https://docs.aws.amazon.com/general/latest/gr/aws-ipv6-support.html

• An Introduction to IPv6 on Google Cloud

https://cloud.google.com/blog/products/networking/getting-started-with-ipv6-on-google-cloud

Working with modern computing environments based on containers offers a lot of benefits (from small image footprint, fast deployment/decommission, and more), but it also has its challenges (from software/package update process, security, integration with container orchestrators, and more).

In this blog post, I will review container operating systems, what are their benefits in the modern cloud environment, and how AWS compares to Google Cloud in terms of container operating systems.

What is Container Operating-Systems?

Container OS is a special type of Linux OS, dedicated to running container workloads.

Below are some of the benefits of using Container OS:

• Small OS footprint – Container OS includes only the necessary packages and dependencies for running containers
• Optimized performance – Container OS is optimized specifically to run container workloads
• Immutable root filesystem – The root filesystem is mounted as read-only. No changes can be done to the root filesystem
• Remote control – SSH to the Container OS is disabled by default
• Automatic updates – Container OS software updates are done using the CSP-managed containers or Kubernetes service upgrade mechanisms

AWS Bottlerocket vs. Google Container-Optimized OS

Summary

Container operating systems are considered the last word in the evolution of hypervisors, optimized to run container workloads.

Their small footprint, built-in security features, auto-update, and integration with managed Kubernetes services make them idle for running container workloads.

Although both Bottlerocket and Container-Optimized OS were created by specific cloud providers, AWS Bottlerocket does offer much broader alternatives for running a container OS on various container platforms.

References

• AWS Bottlerocket

https://aws.amazon.com/bottlerocket/

• Google Container-Optimized OS

https://cloud.google.com/container-optimized-os/docs/how-to

In chapter 1 of this series about cloud-native applications, we have introduced the key characteristics of cloud-native applications.

In this chapter, we will review how to secure cloud-native applications.

Securing the CI/CD pipeline

Due to the dynamic nature of the cloud-native application, we need to begin securing our application stack from the initial steps of the CI/CD pipeline.

Since I have already written posts on how to secure DevOps processes, automation, and supply chain, I will highlight the following:

• Run code analysis using automated tools (SAST – Static application security tools, DAST – Dynamic application security tools)
• Run SCA (Software composition analysis) tool to detect known vulnerabilities in open-source binaries and libraries
• Sign your software package before storing them in a repository
• Store all your sources (code, container images, libraries) in a private repository, protected by strong authorization mechanisms
• Invest in security training for developers, DevOps, and IT personnel
• Make sure no human access is allowed to production environments (use Break Glass accounts for emergency purposes)

Additional references:

• Integrate security aspects in a DevOps process
• Securing the Software Supply Chain in the Cloud
• Cloud Native Security Map

Securing infrastructure build process

As I have mentioned in the previous chapter of this series, one of the characteristics of cloud-native applications is the fact that it is built using Infrastructure as Code.

Each cloud provider has its own IaC scripting language, and naturally, there is cloud agnostic (or multi-cloud…) – HashiCorp Terraform.

Since this is code, we need to store the code in a private repository and scan the code for security vulnerabilities, but we need an additional layer of protection for Infrastructure as Code.

This is referred to as Policy as Code, where we can define a set of controls, from enforcing encryption at transit and rest, enabling resource provisioning on specific regions, or prohibiting the creation of instances with public IP.

The next thing in terms of the policy as code is called OPA – Open Policy Agent. It supports all major cloud providers and has built-in integration with Terraform, Kubernetes, and more.

OPA has its declarative language called Rego and it can integrate inside an existing CI/CD pipeline.

Additional references:

• Introduction to Policy as Code
• Automation as key to cloud adoption success
• Open Policy Agent
• Terraform OPA policies examples

Securing Containers / Kubernetes

Containers are one of the most common ways to package and deploy modern applications, and as a result, we need to secure the containerized environment.

It begins with a minimum number of binaries and libraries inside a container image.

We must make sure we scan our container images for vulnerable binaries or open-source libraries, and eventually, we need to store our container images inside a private container registry.

In most cases, when using Kubernetes as an orchestrator, we should choose a managed Kubernetes service (offered by each of the major cloud providers).

Using a Kubernetes control plane based on a managed service shifts the responsibility for securing and maintaining the Kubernetes control plane on the cloud provider.

One thing to keep in mind – we should always create private clusters, and make sure the control plane is never accessible outside our private subnets, to reduce the attack surface on our Kubernetes cluster.

In terms of authorization, we should follow the principle of least privilege and use RBAC (Role-based access control), to allow our application to function and our developers or support team the minimum number of required permissions to do their job.

In terms of network connectivity to and between pods, we should use one of the service mesh solutions (such as Istio), and set network policies that clearly define which pod can communicate with which pod, and who can access the API server.

In terms of secrets management that the containers need access to, we need to make sure all sensitive data (secrets, credentials, API keys, etc.) are stored in a secured location (such as AWS Secrets Manager, Azure Key Vault, Google Secret Manager, Oracle Cloud Infrastructure Vault or HashiCorp Vault), where all requests to pull a secret are authorized and audited, and secrets can automatically rotate.

Additional references:

• Kubernetes security
• Overview of Cloud Native Security
• OWASP – Kubernetes Security Cheat Sheet
• CIS Benchmark for Kubernetes
• The Istio service mesh

Securing APIs

As we have mentioned in the previous chapter, communication between containers is done using APIs. Also, when communicating with applications deployed inside pods as part of the Kubernetes cluster, all communication is done through the Kubernetes API server.

Not to mention that modern applications, websites and naturally mobile applications are exposing APIs to customers from the public internet (unless your application is meant for private use only…).

Below are the main best practices for securing APIs:

• Authentication – make sure all your APIs require authentication. Regardless if your API is supposed to share public stock exchange data, a retail book catalog, or weather statistics, all requests to pull data from an exposed API must be authenticated.
• Authorization – make sure you set strict access control on each API request, whether it is read data from a database, update records, or privileged actions such as deleting data. Keep in mind the principle of least privilege.
• Encryption – all traffic to an exposed API must be encrypted at transit using the most up-to-date encryption protocol (for example TLS 1.2 or above). Encryption keeps the data confidential and proves the identity of your API (or server) to your customers.
• Auditing – make sure all actions done on your APIs are auditing and all logs are sent to a central logging system (or SIEM) for further archive and analysis (to find out if someone is trying to take actions they are not supposed to).
• Input validation – make sure all input coming to your APIs is been validated, before storing it in a backend database. It will allow you to limit the chance of injection attacks.
• DDoS and web-related attacks – make sure all your exposed APIs are protected behind anti-DDoS and behind a web application firewall. If it will not block 100% of the attacks, at least you will be able to block the well-known and signature-based attacks and decrease the amount of unwanted traffic against your APIs.
• Code review – API is a piece of code. Before pushing new changes to any API, make sure you run static and dynamic code analysis, to locate security vulnerabilities embed in your code.
• Throttling – make sure you enforce a throttling mechanism, in case someone tries to access your API multiple times from the same source, to avoid a situation where your API is unavailable for all your customers.

Additional reference:

• OWASP API Security Project

Authorization

Authorization in a cloud-native application can be challenging.

On legacy applications all components were built as part of a single monolith, users had to log in from a single-entry point, and once we have authenticated and authorized them, they were to access data and with proper permissions to make changes to data as well.

Since modern applications are built upon micro-service architecture, we need to think not just about end users communicating with our application, but also about how each component in our architecture is going to communicate with other components (such as pod-to-pod communication required authorization).

If every component in our entire application is developed by a separate team, we need to think about a central authorization mechanism.

But central authorization mechanism is not enough.

We need to integrate our authorization mechanism with a central IAM (Identity and Access Management) system.

I would not recommend to re-invent the wheel – try to use the IAM service from your cloud provider of choice. Cloud-native IAM systems have built-in integration with the cloud eco-system, including auditing capabilities – this way you will be able to consume the service, without maintaining the underlining infrastructure.

Checking the end-users’ privileges at login time might not be sufficient. We need to think about fine-grain permissions – is a generic “Reader user” enough? Do the user needs read access to all data stored in our data store? Perhaps he only needs read access to a specific line of business customers database and nothing more. Always keep in mind the principle of least privilege.

Our authorization mechanism needs to be dynamic according to each request and data the user is trying to access, be verified constantly and allow us to easily revoke permissions in case of suspicious activity, when permissions are no longer needed or if data confidentially has changed over time.

We need to make sure our authorization mechanism can be easily integrated and consumed by each of the various development groups, as a standard authorization mechanism.

Additional references:

• OPAL – Open-Policy Administration Layer
• Netflix’s permissions design in a talk at KubeCon

Summary

In this post, we have reviewed various topics we need to take into consideration when talking about how to secure cloud-native applications.

We have reviewed the highlights of securing the build process, the infrastructure provisioning, Kubernetes (as an orchestrator engine to run our applications), and not forgetting topics that are part of the secure development lifecycle (securing APIs and authorization mechanism).

Naturally, we have just covered some of the highlights of security in cloud-native applications.

I strongly recommend you to deep dive into each topic, read the references and search for additional information that will allow any developer, DevOps, DevSecOps, architect, or security professional, to better secure cloud-native applications.

Additional References:

• OWASP Cloud-Native Application Security Top 10
• Cloud Native Security Whitepaper

In the past couple of years, there is a buzz about cloud-native applications.

In this series of posts, I will review what exactly is considered a cloud-native application and how can we secure cloud-native applications.

Before speaking about cloud-native applications, we should ask ourselves – what is cloud native anyway?

The CNCF (Cloud Native Computing Foundation) provides the following definition:

“Cloud native technologies empower organizations to build and run scalable applications in modern, dynamic environments such as public, private, and hybrid clouds. Containers, service meshes, microservices, immutable infrastructure, and declarative APIs exemplify this approach.

These techniques enable loosely coupled systems that are resilient, manageable, and observable. Combined with robust automation, they allow engineers to make high-impact changes frequently and predictably with minimal toil.”

Source: https://github.com/cncf/toc/blob/main/DEFINITION.md

It means – taking full advantage of cloud capabilities, from elasticity (scale in and scale out according to workload demands), use of managed services (such as compute, database, and storage services), and the use of modern design architectures based on micro-services, APIs, and event-driven applications.

What are the key characteristics of cloud-native applications?

Use of modern design architecture

Modern applications are built from loosely coupled architecture, which allows us to replace a single component of the application, with minimal or even no downtime to the entire application.

Examples can be code update/change or scale in/scale out a component according to application load.

• RESTful APIs are suitable for communication between components when fast synchronous communication is required. We use API gateways as managed service to expose APIs and control inbound traffic to various components of our application.

Example of services:

• Amazon API Gateway
• Azure API Management
• Google API Gateway
• Oracle API Gateway
• Event-driven architecture is suitable for asynchronous communication. It uses events to trigger and communicate between various components of our application. In this architecture, one component produces/publishes an event (such as a file uploaded to object storage) and another component subscribes/consumes the events (in a Pub/Sub model) and reacts to the event (for example reads the file content and steam it to a database). This type of architecture handles load very well.

Example of services:

• Amazon EventBridge
• Amazon Simple Queue Service (SQS)
• Azure Event Grid
• Azure Service Bus
• Google Eventarc
• Google Cloud Pub/Sub
• Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) Events Service

Additional References:

• AWS – What is API management?
• AWS – What is an Event-Driven Architecture?
• Azure – API Design
• Azure – Event-driven architecture style
• Google API design guide
• GCP – Event-driven architectures
• Oracle API For Developers
• Oracle Cloud – Modern App Development – Event-Driven

Use of microservices

Microservices represent the concept of distributed applications, and they enable us to decouple our applications into small independent components.

Components in a microservice architecture usually communicate using APIs (as previously mentioned in this post).

Each component can be deployed independently, which provides a huge benefit for code change and scalability.

Additional references:

• AWS – What are Microservices?
• Azure – Microservice architecture style
• GCP – What is Microservices Architecture?
• Oracle Cloud – Design a Microservices-Based Application
• The Twelve-Factor App

Use of containers

Modern applications are heavily built upon containerization technology.

Containers took virtual machines to the next level in the evolution of computing services.

They contain a small subset of the operating system – only the bare minimum binaries and libraries required to run an application.

Containers bring many benefits – from the ability to run anywhere, small footprint (for container images), isolation (in case of a container crash), fast deployment time, and more.

The most common orchestration and deployment platform for containers is Kubernetes, used by many software development teams and SaaS vendors, capable of handling thousands of containers in many production environments.

Example of services:

• Amazon Elastic Kubernetes Service (EKS)
• Azure Kubernetes Service (AKS)
• Google Kubernetes Engine (GKE)
• Oracle Container Engine for Kubernetes (OKE)

 Additional References:

• Containers on AWS
• Azure – What is a container?
• GCP – Containers in Cloud

Use of Serverless / Function as a Service

More and more organizations are beginning to embrace serverless or function-as-a-service technology.

This is considered the latest evolution in computing services.

This technology allows us to write code and import it into a managed environment, where the cloud provider is responsible for the maintenance, availability, scalability, and security of the underlining infrastructure used to run our code.

Serverless / Function as a Service, demonstrates a very good use case for event-driven applications (for example – an event written to a log file triggers a function to update a database record).

Functions can also be part of a microservice architecture, where some of the application components are based on serverless technology, to run specific tasks.

Example of services:

• AWS Lambda
• Azure Functions
• Google Cloud Functions
• Oracle Cloud Functions

Additional References:

• Serverless on AWS
• Azure serverless
• Google Cloud Serverless computing
• Oracle Cloud – What is serverless?

Use of DevOps processes

To support rapid application development and deployment, modern applications use CI/CD processes, which follow DevOps principles.

We use pipelines to automate the process of continuous integration and continuous delivery or deployment.

The process allows us to integrate multiple steps or gateways, where in each step we can embed additional automated tests, from static code analysis, functional test, integration test, and more.

Example of services:

• AWS CodePipeline
• Azure Pipelines
• Google Cloud Build
• OCI DevOps

Additional References:

• DevOps and AWS
• DevOps solutions on Azure
• Google Cloud DevOps capabilities
• Oracle Cloud DevOps Overview

Use of automated deployment processes

Modern application deployment takes an advantage of automation using Infrastructure as Code.

Infrastructure as Code is using declarative scripting languages, in in-order to deploy an entire infrastructure or application infrastructure stack in an automated way.

The fact that our code is stored in a central repository allows us to enforce authorization mechanisms, auditing of actions, and the ability to roll back to the previous version of our Infrastructure as Code.

Infrastructure as Code integrates perfectly with CI/CD processes, which enables us to re-use the knowledge we already gained from DevOps principles.

Example of solutions:

• AWS CloudFormation
• What is Azure Resource Manager?
• Google Cloud Deployment Manager
• What is Terraform?

Additional References:

• Automation as key to cloud adoption success
• AWS – Infrastructure as Code
• Azure – What is infrastructure as code (IaC)?
• Want a repeatable scale? Adopt infrastructure as code on GCP
• Oracle Cloud – What Is Infrastructure as Code (IaC)?

Summary

In this post, we have reviewed the key characteristics of cloud-native applications, and how can we take full advantage of the cloud, when designing, building, and deploying modern applications.

I recommend you continue expanding your knowledge about cloud-native applications, whether you are a developer, IT team member, architect, or security professional.

Stay tuned for the next chapter of this series, where we will focus on securing cloud-native applications.

Additional references

• AWS – What Is Cloud Native?
• Azure – What is Cloud Native?
• Google Cloud – What is cloud-native?
• Oracle Cloud – What is Cloud Native?
• What is a cloud-native application?
• What Modern Cloud-Native Apps are Made Of